Linking Routine Activity Theory to Human Trafficking: A Criminological Analysis
Introduction
Most crimes are complex, especially those correlating with harm inflicted upon another person. However, it is critical to highlight the uniquely multifaceted nature of the offense. On the one hand, trafficking encompasses multiple crimes, often including illegal transportation, coercion, deception, exploitation, and forceful recruitment. On the other hand, it is an operation that requires cross-border involvement, which further generates difficulties in assessing human trafficking via a criminological and theoretical context. Last but not least, the victims can be forced to do a variety of actions and be exploited via sexual work, physical labor, and criminal work.
Routine Activity Theory (RAT) is a reliable lens through which human trafficking can be viewed. Based on the framework, a crime occurs when three elements align: the presence of an offender ready to commit it, vulnerable targets, and the lack of a person who could protect the victim or stop the offender. By incorporating an offense, namely human trafficking, the model highlights that the three components are to be assessed to understand the nature of the phenomenon as well as potentially suggest ways in which the high levels of trafficking can be addressed.
The current paper highlights the link between the Routine Activity Theory and human trafficking. It illustrates the presence and context of the three elements: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of guardians. The hypothesis is that the trafficker experiences benefits from committing the wrongdoing, the individual being exploited is vulnerable, and the lack of protective measures generates a more substantial issue.
Routine Activity Theory
The Routine Activity Theory is a framework in criminology assessing the roles of day-to-day activities, environments, and patterns that can directly or indirectly maximize the likelihood of offenses being committed. It was developed in 1979 by Lawrence E. Cohen and Marcus Felson (Schmalleger, 2020). What stands out when comparing RAT to other theoretical contexts is the focus on immediate circumstances rather than backgrounds and roots. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the nature of legal violations and potential interventions that can be employed to prevent them. As mentioned, the model suggests the link between the contextual factors linked to the wrongdoer, the target, and the third parties that could have impacted the outcome.
Offender
One of the circumstances described in the framework is the presence of a motivated offender. This implies that the person who commits the crime has experienced favorable environmental and internal contextual elements. This sometimes relates to deviant peers (Mohammad & Nooraini, 2021). In other cases, for example, when it comes to financially driven crime, the person may be influenced by poverty and the perception that economic advantages will follow with little to no punishment if the offense is followed through.
When it comes to human trafficking, the individuals who exploit vulnerable individuals share specific characteristics in many cases. On the one hand, they are motivated by profit, while, from another perspective, they lack empathy and compassion (Okeke et al., 2021). Hence, they are typically financially motivated and lack the traits that would deter them from taking advantage of the defenseless nature of the affected party. In addition, relevant literature emphasizes the importance of the power dynamics between the offender and the victim.
The criminals typically have more substantial social and community support, socioeconomic positions, and strength advantages (Preble & Black, 2019). Traffickers are often involved in other criminal activity, such as selling drugs. This implies that their surroundings are similarly motivated by financial gain with a disregard for the well-being of others. Hence, as the theory implies, the offender is driven by financial opportunities, does not face repercussions from peers, and is encouraged by the seemingly powerless position of their targets.
Victim
The circumstances surrounding the victim are also highlighted in RAT. To be precise, the sufferer has to be attractive to the offender and suitable for fulfilling the objectives (Schmalleger, 2020). The target is to be accessible, seen as valuable, and considered easy to victimize in the eyes of the criminal. Needless to say, depending on the crime, the characteristics can be attributed to a person of good in the case of burglaries and theft. When it comes to human trafficking, the theory applies to individuals who are being trafficked, and they can be men, women, or children.
To link RAT to the offense above, it is essential to determine whether the targets are perceived as easy to victimize. Evidence suggests that people who are exploited experience abuse and violence during multiple stages of trafficking, including recruitment, transportation, and even release (Stöckl et al., 2021). This implies that they are perceived as parties that can be violated without repercussions from the lens of the violator. According to researchers, the traffickers take advantage of the unmet needs of vulnerable individuals (Camak, 2022). This is why the subjects are typically impoverished, from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, without a support system, and seeking financial opportunities.
The perpetrator is often viewed as the savior, the chance to escape, and the help needed to change the current living conditions. Needless to say, the context aligns with the previously indicated principle of routine activity. The victims often lack family and friends who support them and are interested in their well-being, cannot access help from outside, and are less likely to be rescued. Additionally, they are often looked over by law enforcement due to their illegal immigration status, which is the case in many human trafficking episodes.
Guardian
One of the three elements mentioned concerning RAT is the presence of a capable protector. The party symbolizes protective forces either via victimization prevention or the combatting of the offense from the criminal’s viewpoint (Schmalleger, 2020). This role can be attributed to a person, such as protective parents, friends who stop the offenders from committing atrocities, or a neighbor noticing unlawful activity or calling the police. In other cases, this role is attributed to law enforcement, crime prevention programs, and community initiatives.
Concerning human trafficking, the role of the protector can be employed in a variety of settings. For example, Camak (2022) mentions that even though 80% of trafficked victims visit a healthcare provider, identifying them is difficult are they often do not disclose their names, status, and the violence they endure. The author also highlights the lack of family support as most children who are victimized are exploited either with the assistance, approval, or direct involvement of family members.
Hence, it is unlikely that the family has the role of a crime-preventing guardian, especially in cases where loved ones are profiting from the crime. Researchers also mention the systemic issues correlating with gender, racial, and ethnic inequalities (Sprang et al., 2022). As a result, individuals may be less likely to call the police if they perceive the victim as a willing participant. The theoretical inclusion of the presence of a protective party can similarly be traced to the nature of human trafficking. Namely, vulnerable affected subjects are typically not supported due to the secretive trait of the illegal business, their minority statuses, and the abusive families that are involved in the wrongdoing in many cases.
Juxtaposition with Additional Theories
Social Learning Theory
RAT is not the only methodology that is commonly applied to assess the nature of human trafficking and ways to either address or prevent it. The Social Learning Theory is often employed in criminological explanations of offenses. The model employs the perception that individuals are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior if they observe it in their environment and peers (Akers & Jennings, 2019). Hence, a person who grows up surrounded by individuals committing offenses and being rewarded for them, whether through status increases or economic gains, is more likely to adhere to this lifestyle.
Additionally, if such offenses are encouraged by friends and family members, the offenders are less likely to feel remorse, which would prevent them from exploiting others. The theory, however, does not consider the importance of an unprotected victim as well as a lack of guardians. By juxtaposing the two hypotheses, RAT appears to be more direct in assessing the importance of having more than the environment as a motivating factor.
Strain Theory
The strain theory can also be applied to crime and trafficking. It reflects the lack of resources that allow people to avoid crime and victimization (Agnew & Brezina, 2019). When it comes to victims, they are often unable to make money legally due to a lack of job opportunities, education, and role models. As they experience financial hardships, people are more likely to agree to engage in illegal activity.
The framework applied both to perpetrators and the targets. An example is the instance in which the sufferers agree to become sex workers and be trafficked as a result of their vulnerabilities. RAT, however, offers a broader analysis of victimization opportunities as it emphasizes the importance of three factors rather than focusing on the strains of the trafficking sufferer.
Criticism
RAT is an evidence-based framework and has been criticized from various perspectives. On the one hand, relevant researchers rightfully doubt the assumption that criminals are rational in their decision-making (Fennelly, 2020). Based on the model, the offender has to be motivated, which implies that the criminal is motivated by factors such as the gain obtained due to the offense, a fulfillment of psychosocial needs, or a minimization of socio-economic conditions. Hence, the critiques mention that the party may not be directly motivated but somewhat psychologically impaired, under the consumption of drugs or alcohol, or simply incapable or unwilling to consider any security measures. However, RAT is not designed to assess the motivation but rather the circumstances needed to exemplify the offense.
In the case of human trafficking, it relates to the connection between the victims and traffickers and the lack of a support system that would generate prevention. Additionally, criticism is also attributed to the lack of observations when it comes to the core of the issue (Engström, 2020). However, other theories are focused on determining the factors that may maximize the rate of offenses, such as economic inequity and injustice. Simultaneously, the model allows for directly addressing a crime rather than elements that may not be hindered appropriately, such as poverty or the presence of vulnerable demographics, such as minorities.
Future Implications
A more in-depth understanding of the phenomenon is available by assessing a criminological topic through theoretical perspectives. However, besides becoming more familiar with the context, potential implications and interventions can similarly be formulated. As the model is an evidence-based examination measure, it can also contribute to establishing prevention and minimization techniques. Trafficking, however, is multifaceted as it often implies an international connotation, a secretive nature, and the difficulty in identifying the victims before they report the crime.
RAT suggests that a lack of guardians preventing unlawful action is one of the concepts that maximizes the rate of human trafficking episodes. Law enforcement-based and non-policing interventions can be applied to strengthen this specific element. Police reform and training regarding identifying victims and perpetrators can be employed to tackle the issue directly. Another way to reduce crime rates is to deal with supply chain disruptions via community interventions (Reid & Fox, 2023). The implications align with the framework, are incident-specific, and are unique to the offense.
Victim support services are also critical as vulnerable individuals are not in a position to leave their abusers. Current sources emphasize the need for mental health, social, and legal assistance (Munro-Kramer et al., 2019). As a result, the lack of power and authority experienced by the target of traffickers is being tackled via relevant policies which are also in line with RAM indicators. Support interventions can also address individuals who are more likely to become victims in the future. Impoverished communities living in high-crime areas must be assisted with improving their socioeconomic status.
For example, affordable education, extracurricular activities, free job training, hiring assistance, and affordable housing can maximize positive results. A similar effect would follow for perpetrators. As established areas, they often come from backgrounds where crime is celebrated instead of being overlooked. Thus, by adding growth opportunities and chances to advance economically, academically, and professionally, instances in which people become traffickers are diminished.
Conclusion
The Routine Activity Theory suggests human trafficking happens when the perpetrator is motivated to offend, the victim is easy to exploit, and no preventative measures are implemented to disrupt the chain of events. The model does, indeed, correlate with existing research. On the one hand, criminals tend to have a background in illegal affairs and be supported by peers in their wrongdoings. The victims, on the other hand, do not have a support system, are socioeconomically vulnerable, and seek a better life. Last but not least, guardians are not present because trafficking is a secretive business, and it is difficult to identify the targets. Based on the theory, the interventions are to address the lack of resources that vulnerable populations can access and community services that can assist those in need.
References
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